Key facts and dates

The period from February to October 1917 was a critical phase in the Russian Revolution, marked by political instability and competing authorities. The Provisional Government struggled to maintain control amidst growing revolutionary fervour, ultimately paving the way for Bolshevik ascendancy.

Timeline of key events

• February 1917 – Formation of the Provisional Government after the Tsar's abdication.
• March 1917 – Establishment of the Petrograd Soviet, creating a system of dual power.
• April 1917 – Lenin returns from exile and issues his April Theses, rejecting cooperation with the government.
• June 1917 – Launch of the disastrous June Offensive, weakening the Provisional Government's credibility.
• July 1917 – Alexander Kerensky becomes leader of the Provisional Government.
• October 1917 – Bolsheviks seize power, ending the Provisional Government's rule.

Formation and aims of the Provisional Government

Following the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II in February 1917, a power vacuum emerged in Russia. The Provisional Government was established to fill this gap, tasked with steering the country through a turbulent period of war and revolution. Initially led by Prince Georgy Lvov, and later by Alexander Kerensky, this government was dominated by liberal politicians from the Duma (the Russian parliament before the revolution).

Objectives and composition of the Provisional Government

• Liberal dominance - Composed mainly of members from liberal parties, such as the Kadets (Constitutional Democrats), who believed in establishing a parliamentary democracy.
• Continuation of war - A primary aim was to continue Russia's involvement in the First World War, aligning with Allied powers and maintaining national honour, despite widespread war weariness among the populace.
• Postponement of reforms - Major issues like land redistribution and workers' rights were delayed until a Constituent Assembly could be elected to draft a new constitution, reflecting a cautious approach to radical change.
• Temporary authority - Intended as a stopgap measure, the government saw itself as a caretaker until democratic elections could formalise a permanent system, underestimating the urgency of immediate reforms.

The concept of dual power with the Petrograd Soviet

While the Provisional Government held formal authority, its power was undermined by the emergence of a parallel authority known as the Petrograd Soviet. This situation, termed 'dual power', created a fragmented political landscape where real influence often lay outside the government's control.

Dual power

Dual power refers to the coexistence of two competing authorities: the Provisional Government, which held official state power, and the Petrograd Soviet, which commanded the loyalty of workers and soldiers.

The Petrograd Soviet

• Established in March 1917, this council of workers' and soldiers' deputies was initially dominated by Mensheviks (a moderate socialist faction) and Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs, focused on peasant interests).
• It wielded significant influence over the urban working class and military units in Petrograd, the revolutionary heart of Russia.
• The Soviet's control over key groups meant it could mobilise strikes, protests, and military disobedience, often overriding government directives.
• For example, it issued Order No. 1, which allowed soldiers to elect committees and question officers' commands.

This arrangement led to constant friction, as the Provisional Government struggled to implement policies without Soviet approval, while the Soviet itself was reluctant to assume full responsibility for governance, believing its role was to pressure rather than rule.

Key decisions and failures of the Provisional Government

The Provisional Government made several critical decisions that ultimately eroded its legitimacy and fuelled revolutionary discontent. These missteps highlighted its inability to address the immediate needs and desires of the Russian people.

Fatal decisions and their consequences

• Continuing the war - Committed to the Allied cause in the First World War, the government launched the June Offensive in 1917, a military campaign aimed at boosting morale and securing territory. Instead, it resulted in catastrophic losses, further demoralising troops and civilians, and intensifying anti-war sentiment.
• Postponing land reform - With peasants desperate for land redistribution, the government's decision to delay reforms until the Constituent Assembly was elected frustrated rural communities, driving them towards revolutionary groups promising immediate action.
• Delaying Constituent Assembly elections - By postponing elections for a permanent governing body, the government appeared indecisive and out of touch, losing public trust as people grew impatient for democratic representation and solutions to pressing issues.
• Impact on authority - These failures collectively weakened the government's position, as soldiers deserted, workers struck, and peasants seized land independently, creating a power vacuum that radical groups, particularly the Bolsheviks, sought to exploit.

The return of Lenin and the impact of his April Theses

The return of key revolutionary leaders from exile marked a turning point in the struggle for power. Vladimir Lenin, the Bolshevik leader, arrived in Petrograd in April 1917, bringing with him a radical vision that challenged the status quo and galvanised opposition to the Provisional Government.

Lenin's return and revolutionary vision

• Arrival in April 1917 - Lenin returned from exile in Switzerland, facilitated by Germany in the hope of destabilising Russia. His return injected new energy into the Bolshevik movement, which had previously lacked clear direction.
• The April Theses - Shortly after his arrival, Lenin published his April Theses, a set of radical demands that rejected any cooperation with the Provisional Government. This manifesto outlined a vision for immediate and transformative change.

Key demands of the April Theses

• 'All Power to the Soviets', advocating for the transfer of authority to the workers' and soldiers' councils, bypassing the Provisional Government.
• An immediate end to the war, resonating with war-weary soldiers and civilians.
• Land to the peasants, promising swift redistribution to address rural grievances.
• Workers' control of factories, appealing to the industrial proletariat by offering direct control over production.

The April Theses provided a clear, uncompromising alternative to the Provisional Government's hesitancy, rallying support among disillusioned workers, soldiers, and peasants. This shifted the political landscape, positioning the Bolsheviks as a viable force for radical change and setting the stage for their eventual seizure of power in October 1917.