Key facts and dates

The Washington Summit of December 1987 marked a historic turning point in Cold War arms control, resulting in the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty, the first agreement to eliminate an entire category of nuclear weapons. This timeline captures the critical events and milestones surrounding this landmark treaty.

Timeline of key events

• 1981 – Reagan proposes the "zero option" to eliminate intermediate-range missiles if the Soviets agree.
• Early 1980s – Soviet deployment of SS-20 missiles and NATO's counter-deployment of Pershing II and cruise missiles heighten tensions.
• Mid-1980s – Massive European peace movements protest against missile deployments.
• 1987 – Gorbachev accepts Reagan's "zero option", leading to breakthrough negotiations.
• 8 December 1987 – INF Treaty signed at the White House during the Washington Summit.
• 1988 onwards – Implementation begins with missile destruction and on-site inspections.

Background to the INF Treaty and the nuclear arms crisis in Europe

The INF Treaty emerged from a period of intense Cold War tension, particularly in Europe, where the deployment of nuclear missiles by both superpowers created a dangerous standoff. This crisis was fuelled by strategic military decisions and widespread public unrest, setting the stage for a historic arms control agreement.

Roots of the nuclear crisis

• Reagan's "zero option" proposal (1981) - President Ronald Reagan proposed the complete elimination of intermediate-range nuclear missiles if the Soviet Union agreed to do the same. Initially, this was dismissed by the Soviets and critics as mere propaganda.
• Soviet SS-20 deployments - During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Soviet Union deployed SS-20 missiles, which were modern, mobile, and capable of striking Western Europe with little warning, escalating fears of a nuclear conflict.
• NATO's counter-deployment - In response, NATO deployed Pershing II and ground-launched cruise missiles in Western Europe, aiming to counterbalance Soviet capabilities and deter aggression, further intensifying the arms race.
• European peace movements - Massive protests erupted across Europe, with millions demonstrating against the presence of nuclear missiles on their soil. These movements highlighted public anxiety about becoming the primary battleground in a potential nuclear war.

Negotiations and key developments leading to the treaty

After years of deadlock, the negotiations for the INF Treaty gained momentum in the mid-1980s due to shifts in Soviet leadership and renewed commitment to dialogue. This process demonstrated the importance of political will in overcoming longstanding mistrust between the superpowers.

Key steps in the negotiation process

• Gorbachev's willingness to negotiate - Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who came to power in 1985, signalled a readiness to accept Reagan's earlier "zero option" proposal, marking a significant departure from previous Soviet resistance.
• Focus on verification - Detailed discussions ensured that both sides could trust the agreement through robust verification measures, addressing concerns about compliance and cheating.
• Breakthrough after impasse - After years of stalled talks, the willingness of both leaders to compromise led to a historic agreement, finalised during the Washington Summit in December 1987.

Terms and significance of the INF Treaty

The INF Treaty was groundbreaking, not only for its scope but also for the precedent it set in arms control. It went beyond merely limiting weapons, achieving a tangible reduction in the nuclear arsenals of both the United States and the Soviet Union.

Core terms of the INF Treaty

• Elimination of missile category - The treaty mandated the destruction of all land-based missiles with ranges between 500 and 5,500 kilometres, including Soviet SS-20s and SS-4s, and American Pershing IIs and ground-launched cruise missiles.
• Scale of destruction - Approximately 2,700 missiles were to be destroyed, marking the first time an entire class of nuclear weapons was eliminated.
• Unprecedented verification - The agreement included intrusive on-site inspections, allowing both sides to monitor compliance directly, a significant step towards transparency in arms control.

Broader significance of the treaty

• First reduction treaty - Unlike previous agreements that merely capped arsenals, the INF Treaty reduced the number of nuclear weapons, demonstrating that disarmament was achievable.
• Elimination of a weapon class - By removing an entire category of missiles, it addressed a major source of Cold War tension and reshaped the nuclear landscape.
• Momentum for future agreements - The success of the INF Treaty provided a foundation for further arms control talks, proving that substantial progress was possible with mutual commitment.

European context and opposition to the treaty

The INF Treaty had a profound impact on Europe, where the targeted missiles posed the greatest threat. However, it also faced criticism from various quarters, reflecting the complex political dynamics of the time.

Impact on European security

• Removal of tension - Eliminating intermediate-range missiles alleviated a significant source of anxiety in Europe, as these weapons were seen as the most immediate threat to the continent's security.
• Validation of NATO's strategy - The treaty validated NATO's dual-track approach of negotiating while maintaining a strong military presence through missile deployments, showing that strength and diplomacy could work hand in hand.

Opposition and concerns

• American conservative criticism - Some U.S. conservatives viewed the treaty as a potential Soviet trap, fearing it might weaken Western defences or benefit the Soviet Union disproportionately.
• Verification doubts - Concerns were raised about whether the verification measures were robust enough to prevent Soviet non-compliance, reflecting lingering Cold War mistrust.
• Decoupling fears - There were worries that removing these missiles might weaken the link between European and American defence strategies, potentially leaving Europe more vulnerable to Soviet influence.

Symbolic importance and implementation of the treaty

Beyond its practical terms, the INF Treaty carried immense symbolic weight, reflecting a shift in U.S.-Soviet relations. Its successful implementation further reinforced trust between the two powers, paving the way for future cooperation.

Symbolic milestones

• Signing at the White House - On 8 December 1987, Reagan and Gorbachev signed the treaty at the Washington Summit, a powerful image of former Cold War adversaries working together for peace.
• Transformed relations - The event symbolised a thawing of tensions, showcasing the potential for dialogue and cooperation even amidst deep ideological differences.

Implementation and outcomes

• Compliance by both sides - Both the United States and the Soviet Union adhered to the treaty's terms, with missiles destroyed as agreed and no major violations reported during the initial implementation phase.
• Effective verification - The on-site inspections and intrusive monitoring mechanisms worked successfully, building confidence in the arms control process.
• Foundation for trust - The INF Treaty's implementation demonstrated that radical arms reductions were feasible with political will, fostering trust that influenced subsequent agreements and contributed to the eventual end of the Cold War.