Key facts and dates

The early years of the Weimar Republic were marked by significant threats from right-wing groups, culminating in events like the Kapp Putsch of 1920. These challenges revealed deep divisions within German society and the fragility of the new democratic system in the face of opposition from conservative and nationalist forces.

Timeline of key events

• March 1920 – Kapp Putsch launched by Wolfgang Kapp and General von Lüttwitz to overthrow the Weimar government.
• March 1920 – General strike called by trade unions helps defeat the Kapp Putsch.
• 1921 – Assassination of Matthias Erzberger, a key Weimar politician, by right-wing extremists.
• 1922 – Assassination of Walther Rathenau, Weimar Foreign Minister, by nationalist groups.
• Early 1920s – Secret military organisations and judicial bias support right-wing activities.

Causes of the Kapp Putsch in March 1920

The Kapp Putsch was a direct attempt to overthrow the Weimar Republic, driven by deep-seated resentment among right-wing groups. This event, occurring in March 1920, exposed the vulnerabilities of the young democracy and the strength of opposition to its policies and principles.

Key factors leading to the Kapp Putsch

• Resentment over the Treaty of Versailles - Many right-wing nationalists blamed the Weimar government for accepting the harsh terms of the 1919 peace treaty, which included significant territorial losses and military restrictions, viewing it as a national humiliation.
• Opposition to democratic government - Conservative and monarchist groups, including former military elites, despised the democratic ideals of the Weimar Republic, longing for a return to authoritarian rule under a strong leader or monarchy.
• Disbandment of Freikorps units - The government's order to dissolve the Freikorps, paramilitary groups of ex-soldiers who had fought against left-wing uprisings, sparked outrage among these units, prompting them to turn against the state they had previously defended.

Events and outcomes of the Kapp Putsch

The Kapp Putsch unfolded as a dramatic challenge to the Weimar government, revealing both the disloyalty of key institutions and the power of public resistance. Understanding the sequence of events and their resolution provides insight into the Republic's early struggles.

Sequence of the Kapp Putsch

1. Initiation of the coup (March 1920) - Led by Wolfgang Kapp, a right-wing politician, and General Walther von Lüttwitz, a senior army officer, Freikorps units marched into Berlin to seize control of the government and establish an authoritarian regime.
2. Army's refusal to act - The Reichswehr (German army) declined to defend the Republic, with General Hans von Seeckt famously stating, "Reichswehr does not fire on Reichswehr," highlighting the military's reluctance to oppose fellow soldiers, even in defence of democracy.
3. Government's flight to Stuttgart - Faced with this betrayal and lacking military support, the Weimar government was forced to flee Berlin and relocate temporarily to Stuttgart to avoid capture.
4. General strike as resistance - Trade unions called for a nationwide general strike, paralysing the country; workers refused to cooperate with the putschists, cutting off essential services and undermining the coup's viability.
5. Collapse of the putsch - Within days, the lack of public and institutional support, combined with the strike's impact, forced Kapp and Lüttwitz to abandon their attempt, allowing the government to return to Berlin.

Significance of the outcome

• The successful resistance through the general strike demonstrated the potential of organised labour to protect democracy, even when state forces failed.
• However, the army's refusal to act exposed a critical weakness in the Republic's ability to rely on its own institutions for defence, foreshadowing ongoing challenges from within.

Role of the army and civil service in right-wing threats

The Weimar Republic faced persistent threats from within its own structures, as key institutions remained loyal to pre-democratic ideals. This internal opposition created significant obstacles to establishing a stable democratic state.

Institutional disloyalty to the Republic

• Army's anti-republican stance - The Reichswehr was dominated by officers who harboured monarchist and nationalist sentiments, viewing the Weimar government as illegitimate; their inaction during the Kapp Putsch exemplified this hostility.
• Civil service resistance - Many civil servants, inherited from the pre-war imperial bureaucracy, retained conservative values and worked against democratic reforms, often undermining government policies.
• A 'state within a state' - Together, the army and civil service operated as powerful, semi-autonomous entities that resisted the Republic's authority, prioritising their own agendas over democratic principles and providing a foundation for right-wing movements to thrive.

Other right-wing violence and political assassinations

Beyond the Kapp Putsch, right-wing extremism manifested in widespread violence and targeted attacks on prominent Weimar figures. These acts aimed to destabilise the Republic and intimidate its supporters.

Political assassinations

• Matthias Erzberger (1921) - A key politician who had signed the 1918 armistice, Erzberger was murdered by nationalist extremists who blamed him for Germany's defeat and humiliation.
• Walther Rathenau (1922) - As Foreign Minister, Rathenau negotiated the Rapallo Treaty with the Soviet Union, but his Jewish background and moderate policies made him a target for assassination by right-wing groups.

Other forms of right-wing violence

• Activities of secret military organisations - Paramilitary groups and underground networks, often composed of former Freikorps members, engaged in covert operations, arms stockpiling, and plots against the government, further eroding stability.
• Widespread intimidation - Right-wing violence created a climate of fear, targeting politicians, journalists, and activists who supported the Republic, weakening public confidence in the government's ability to maintain order.

Judicial bias and leniency towards right-wing extremism

The Weimar Republic's judicial system often failed to counter right-wing threats effectively, displaying a clear bias that contrasted with its harsh treatment of left-wing radicals. This leniency emboldened right-wing groups and undermined the rule of law.

Evidence of judicial bias

• Favourable treatment of right-wing extremists - Courts frequently handed down light sentences or outright acquittals to right-wing perpetrators, even in cases of murder or treason, reflecting sympathy among judges for nationalist causes.
• Contrast with left-wing threats - Left-wing activists, such as communists involved in uprisings, faced severe punishments, including long prison terms or execution, highlighting a double standard in the application of justice.
• Impact on the Republic - This judicial leniency signalled to right-wing groups that they could act with relative impunity, encouraging further violence and conspiracies, while the government struggled to assert authority over a biased legal system.

The failure to decisively punish right-wing extremism allowed these ideologies to fester, contributing to the political instability of the Weimar Republic and paving the way for the eventual rise of more extreme nationalist movements in the 1930s.