Key facts and dates

The period of 1932-1933 in Germany was marked by intense political intrigue among conservative elites surrounding President Paul von Hindenburg. Their actions, driven by personal ambition and misjudgement, significantly contributed to the collapse of the Weimar Republic and the rise of Adolf Hitler.

Timeline of key events

• May 1932 – Chancellor Heinrich Brüning dismissed by Hindenburg under elite pressure.
• June 1932 – Franz von Papen appointed Chancellor, forming a 'cabinet of barons'.
• June 1932 – Papen lifts the ban on the SA, escalating political violence.
• July 1932 – Preußenschlag: Papen dissolves the Prussian government, centralising power.
• December 1932 – Kurt von Schleicher becomes Chancellor after betraying Papen.
• January 1933 – Schleicher's chancellorship fails; Hitler appointed Chancellor.

The political machinations around Hindenburg in 1932-1933

During 1932-1933, Germany's Weimar Republic faced a deepening political crisis. President Paul von Hindenburg, an ageing and conservative figure, was heavily influenced by a small circle of elite advisers. These conservative elites engaged in secretive political plotting, often referred to as 'backstairs intrigue', which destabilised democratic governance and paved the way for the Nazi rise to power.

Context of the conservative elite's influence

• Hindenburg's role - As President, Hindenburg held significant power under the Weimar Constitution, including the ability to appoint and dismiss chancellors, making him a central figure in political decisions.
• Elite motivations - This group, comprising aristocrats, military figures, and landowners, sought to protect traditional power structures against the rising influence of both socialist and Nazi movements.
• Undermining democracy - Their behind-the-scenes manipulations prioritised personal and class interests over democratic stability, exploiting the economic and social turmoil of the Great Depression to push their agenda.

The dismissal of Chancellor Brüning and its consequences

In May 1932, Chancellor Heinrich Brüning was forced out of office due to a loss of Hindenburg's support. This event marked a critical turning point, as it removed a relatively moderate leader during a time of crisis.

Reasons for Brüning's dismissal

• Loss of presidential support - Hindenburg withdrew his backing, influenced by advisers who believed Brüning's policies, such as land reform proposals, threatened elite interests.
• Pressure from landowners - Agricultural elites opposed Brüning's plans to redistribute land to unemployed workers, lobbying Hindenburg for his removal.
• Role of advisers - Key figures like General Kurt von Schleicher, a military officer with political ambitions, convinced Hindenburg that a new chancellor could better manage the crisis and counter the growing Nazi threat.

Consequences of the dismissal

• Power vacuum - Brüning's exit left the government without a strong, democratically supported leader, increasing political instability.
• Shift to authoritarianism - His dismissal signalled a move away from parliamentary governance, as subsequent chancellors relied on presidential decrees rather than Reichstag majorities.

Franz von Papen's chancellorship and political manoeuvres

Following Brüning's dismissal, Franz von Papen was appointed Chancellor in June 1932. A lesser-known aristocratic politician from the Centre Party, Papen lacked broad political support but represented the interests of the traditional elite.

Papen's background and government

• 'Cabinet of barons' - Papen's government was composed largely of unelected aristocrats and industrialists, reflecting a return to elite dominance rather than democratic representation.
• Lack of parliamentary support - With little backing in the Reichstag, Papen relied on Hindenburg's emergency powers to govern, further eroding democratic norms.

Key actions under Papen

• Lifting the SA ban (June 1932) - Papen removed the prohibition on the Sturmabteilung (SA), the Nazi paramilitary wing, hoping to gain Nazi support; this instead led to a surge in political violence on the streets.
• Preußenschlag (July 1932) - In a controversial move known as the 'Prussian coup', Papen dissolved the democratically elected Social Democratic government of Prussia, the largest German state, placing it under federal control to weaken left-wing opposition.
• Attempts to control the Nazis - Papen sought to bring the Nazis into a coalition under his leadership, believing he could manipulate them to stabilise his rule, a strategy that underestimated their ambitions.

Kurt von Schleicher's role and brief chancellorship

General Kurt von Schleicher, a key figure in the 'backstairs intrigue', played a central role in the political chaos of this period. Initially serving as Defence Minister, he orchestrated much of the behind-the-scenes plotting before briefly becoming Chancellor himself.

Schleicher's political manipulations

• Influence on appointments - Schleicher was instrumental in convincing Hindenburg to dismiss Brüning and appoint Papen, positioning himself as a power broker within the elite circle.
• Betrayal of Papen - By late 1932, Schleicher undermined Papen by persuading Hindenburg that Papen's government was unsustainable, leading to Papen's resignation in December 1932.
• Strategy to 'tame' the Nazis - Schleicher believed that by offering the Nazis limited responsibility within a coalition, he could control their influence and prevent a full takeover, a significant miscalculation.

Schleicher's chancellorship (December 1932 - January 1933)

• Appointment as Chancellor - Schleicher took over from Papen, hoping to stabilise the government through new alliances.
• Failed coalition attempts - He tried to split the Nazi Party by negotiating with Gregor Strasser, a Nazi leader more amenable to cooperation, while also seeking support from trade unions to broaden his base; these efforts collapsed due to mutual distrust.
• Loss of support - Schleicher's inability to form a viable coalition and his alienation of both Hindenburg and other elites led to his rapid downfall within weeks.

Miscalculations of the elite and the path to Hitler's rise

The actions of Hindenburg, Papen, Schleicher, and their conservative allies were marked by profound misjudgements about the political forces they were dealing with. Their intrigue ultimately facilitated Adolf Hitler's appointment as Chancellor in January 1933.

Key miscalculations by the elite

• Underestimating Hitler - Papen and Schleicher believed they could control Hitler by integrating the Nazis into a government where they held minority power, failing to recognise the ruthlessness and ambition of the Nazi leadership.
• Prioritising personal interests - The conservative elites often placed their own political survival and class privileges above the stability of the Weimar Republic, ignoring the broader consequences of their actions.
• Fragmenting opposition - By dismantling democratic structures like the Prussian government and alienating moderate parties, they weakened potential resistance to the Nazis.

Consequences leading to Nazi power

• Political instability - The rapid succession of chancellors and lack of parliamentary support created a governance crisis that the Nazis exploited through propaganda and intimidation.
• Hitler's appointment - With Schleicher unable to govern and Papen seeking revenge, the elites convinced Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as Chancellor on 30 January 1933, mistakenly believing they could limit his influence within a conservative-dominated cabinet.
• Failure of containment - The belief that responsibility would moderate the Nazis proved disastrously wrong, as Hitler quickly consolidated power, sidelining his supposed controllers and dismantling the Weimar Republic.

This period of 'backstairs intrigue' reveals how conservative elites, driven by a mix of arrogance and desperation, played a critical role in enabling the Nazi ascent through their short-sighted strategies and reckless political games.