Key facts and dates

The reign of Alexander II (1855-1881) saw a significant growth in opposition movements in Russia, driven by dissatisfaction with the pace of reform and social inequalities. This period witnessed the emergence of Populism, revolutionary terrorism, and ultimately the assassination of the Tsar, which had profound effects on Russia's political landscape.

Timeline of key events

• 1855 – Alexander II ascends to the throne, initiating a period of reform.
• 1861 – Emancipation of the serfs, sparking hope but also discontent due to limited change.
• 1870s – Populist 'going to the people' movement attempts to educate and radicalise peasants but largely fails.
• 1876 – Formation of Land and Liberty, advocating for land redistribution and later turning to violence.
• 1879 – Split of Land and Liberty; emergence of the People's Will, focused on terrorism.
• March 1881 – Assassination of Alexander II by the People's Will, marking a turning point in Russian politics.

The rise of opposition movements during Alexander II's reign

Alexander II's reign began with optimism for reform, most notably the emancipation of the serfs in 1861. However, the limited scope of these reforms, combined with persistent social and economic inequalities, fuelled growing discontent among various groups in Russian society. This dissatisfaction gave rise to organised opposition movements that challenged the autocratic system.

Factors contributing to opposition growth

• Disappointment with reforms - The emancipation of the serfs freed millions from bondage but left them with heavy redemption payments and insufficient land, creating resentment among peasants.
• Urban and intellectual unrest - Rapid industrialisation led to poor working conditions in cities, while educated elites grew frustrated with censorship and the slow pace of political change.
• Influence of Western ideas - Exposure to European revolutionary ideologies, such as socialism and anarchism, inspired calls for radical change among Russian intellectuals and students.
• Repressive state policies - The Tsarist regime's harsh response to dissent, including arrests and exile, often radicalised moderates, pushing them towards more extreme opposition.

The ideology and failure of Populism and the 'going to the people' movement

One of the earliest and most significant opposition movements during Alexander II's reign was Populism, known as Narodnichestvo in Russian. This ideology aimed to transform society by focusing on the peasantry as the foundation for a new, egalitarian Russia.

Core beliefs of Populism

• Peasant centrality - Populists believed that the Russian peasantry, with their communal traditions (mir), held the potential for a socialist future, bypassing the capitalist stage seen in Western Europe.
• Rejection of industrialisation - They opposed the growth of capitalism and urban industrial society, idealising rural life as morally superior and more authentically Russian.
• Role of intellectuals - Educated young people were seen as agents of change, tasked with awakening the peasants to their revolutionary potential through education and agitation.

The 'going to the people' movement

Thousands of young intellectuals travelled to rural areas in the 1870s to live among peasants, aiming to educate them about socialism and incite rebellion against the Tsarist regime.

Reasons for the movement's failure:

• The movement largely failed due to a disconnect between the idealistic intellectuals and the practical concerns of peasants.
• Peasants were often suspicious of outsiders and more focused on immediate survival than abstract revolutionary ideas.
• The Tsarist government responded with mass arrests and trials, such as the Trial of the 193 in 1877-78, which further weakened the Populist movement and disillusioned many of its supporters.

The shift to terrorism by groups like Land and Liberty and the People's Will

Following the failure of peaceful agitation, segments of the opposition turned to more violent methods to achieve their goals. This marked a significant shift in strategy, as revolutionary groups began to see terrorism as a necessary tool to destabilise the autocracy.

Emergence of revolutionary terrorist groups

• Land and Liberty (formed 1876) - Initially focused on advocating land redistribution to peasants, this group grew frustrated with the lack of progress and split over the issue of violence.
• The People's Will (formed 1879) - A faction of Land and Liberty, this group fully embraced terrorism, believing that targeted assassinations of key figures, including the Tsar, would spark widespread revolution.
• Cycle of violence and repression - The use of violence by these groups led to harsher government crackdowns, which in turn radicalised more individuals, creating an escalating spiral of conflict throughout the late 1870s.

Tactics and objectives of terrorist groups

• Targeted assassinations - The People's Will carried out several high-profile attacks, aiming to eliminate oppressive figures and inspire fear in the regime, with their ultimate goal being the overthrow of autocracy.
• Propaganda by deed - Acts of violence were intended to serve as public statements, demonstrating the vulnerability of the state and encouraging others to join the revolutionary cause.

Key revolutionary thinkers and their influence on opposition

The growth of opposition was heavily influenced by intellectual figures who provided the ideological framework for revolutionary movements. Their writings and ideas shaped the strategies and goals of groups like the Populists and later terrorist organisations.

Influential thinkers and their contributions

• Alexander Herzen (1812-1870) - Often called the "father of Russian socialism," Herzen promoted the idea of a uniquely Russian path to socialism based on peasant communes, inspiring the Populist movement with his calls for reform from exile in London.
• Mikhail Bakunin (1814-1876) - A leading anarchist thinker, Bakunin advocated for the destruction of the state through revolutionary violence, influencing later groups like the People's Will with his emphasis on immediate action over gradual reform.
• Role of intellectuals - Beyond specific figures, the broader intellectual class, including students and writers, played a crucial role in spreading revolutionary ideas through underground publications and secret societies, despite heavy censorship.

The assassination of Alexander II and its political consequences

The culmination of revolutionary violence came with the assassination of Alexander II on 1 March 1881, a defining moment in Russian history. Carried out by the People's Will, this act had far-reaching consequences for the reform process and the political climate in Russia.

The assassination

After several failed attempts, members of the People's Will succeeded in killing Alexander II in St Petersburg by throwing bombs at his carriage as he returned from a military parade. The attack shocked the nation, leading to the swift arrest and execution of the conspirators, including key figures like Sophia Perovskaya, one of the first women to be executed for political crimes in Russia.

Impact on reform and political climate

• Halt to reform efforts - Alexander II had been considering further reforms, including plans for a limited representative assembly, but his death ended these initiatives, as his successor, Alexander III, rejected liberal policies.
• Strengthening of reactionary forces - The assassination intensified fear among the ruling elite, leading to a surge in conservative and repressive policies under Alexander III, including stricter censorship and police surveillance.
• Long-term consequences for opposition - While the People's Will hoped the assassination would spark a broader revolution, it instead alienated much of the public and weakened the revolutionary movement temporarily, as state repression dismantled many opposition networks.
• Shift in political atmosphere - The event marked the end of the reformist era of Alexander II, ushering in a period of reaction that delayed political modernisation and deepened divisions between the state and opposition forces.