Disputes over resource ownership and use

Natural resources are becoming increasingly scarce in many parts of the world. As supplies dwindle, control over these resources gains greater importance, especially for countries aiming to achieve or maintain superpower status. This scarcity often leads to disputes about who owns and can use the resources, which can escalate into broader geopolitical tensions.

Key factors in resource ownership disputes

• Transboundary resources - These are natural reserves, such as groundwater aquifers, lakes, coal seams, or oil deposits, that extend across international borders. Dividing them fairly between countries is challenging because the resource does not respect political boundaries.
• Territorial disputes - Conflicts arise when multiple countries claim ownership of land or sea areas containing valuable resources. In some cases, a country may refuse to recognise an established border and continue activities in the disputed zone.
• Resources as human rights - Certain resources, like water, are viewed as essential for human survival and wellbeing. Countries are generally more willing to share these than commercially valuable ones, such as oil. However, as safe drinking water becomes critical for both health and economic development, the line between humanitarian and commercial resources is blurring.

These disputes highlight how resource control is not just about economic gain but also about national security and development.

Causes of tensions in resource disputes

Resource conflicts do not always stem from competing demands for exploitation. They can involve a range of motivations, including conservation efforts and claims over unclaimed or shared territories.

Types of tensions in resource disputes

• Exploitation versus conservation - One country may seek to extract a resource for economic benefit, while another prioritises protecting it for environmental reasons. This mismatch in priorities can lead to diplomatic standoffs.
• Interest in unclaimed territory - Multiple countries may stake claims on areas without clear ownership, such as remote oceans or polar regions, to access untapped resources.
• Overlapping marine claims - Coastal nations often face disputes over shared seas, particularly when their zones overlap.

Exclusive economic zones (EEZ)

An exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is a maritime area extending 200 nautical miles from a country's coastline, granting that nation rights to resources like fish, oil, and gas within it. When neighbouring countries' EEZs overlap and they cannot agree on division, the United Nations (UN) may intervene to mediate a fair resolution. This process aims to prevent escalation but can still heighten tensions if decisions are contested.

Case study: Arctic oil and gas disputes

The Arctic region contains significant reserves of oil and natural gas, with estimates suggesting up to 90 billion barrels of oil. Unlike the more protected Antarctic, the Arctic lacks strong safeguards against resource extraction, leading to intense territorial competition. Climate change is exacerbating this by melting ice, making the area more accessible for navigation and drilling.

Several nations border the Arctic Ocean and assert rights based on proximity and EEZs

• Canada, USA, Russia, Norway, and Denmark (via Greenland) - These countries claim portions of the Arctic Ocean, its seabed, and features like the Lomonosov Ridge, an underwater mountain range that could contain resources.
• Most claims focus on areas nearest to each country's land, but overlaps occur due to the Arctic's geography.

Key disputes and actions

• USA and Canada - Ongoing disagreements over EEZ boundaries in the western Arctic.
• Russia and Norway - Conflicts in the eastern Arctic, intensified by Russia's 2007 planting of a flag on the North Pole seabed to assert dominance.
• Military and exploratory activities have increased as ice melts, allowing naval movements and test drilling in contested zones. Powerful militaries, like those of the USA and Russia, add to the tension by positioning forces closer to disputed areas.

These actions demonstrate how resource potential can drive aggressive territorial assertions.

Overlapping spheres of influence

A sphere of influence refers to the geographical area over which a country exerts political, economic, or cultural control, extending beyond its own borders. Superpowers typically have larger spheres than peripheral nations. Overlaps between these spheres often spark disputes, as competing powers vie for dominance in shared regions.

Reasons countries may seek to enlarge their spheres of influence

• Access to resources and trade - Expanding territory can secure new reserves of valuable materials or control key trade routes.
• Post-conflict territorial changes - After wars, land may be redistributed, with one country acquiring areas previously held by another, causing ongoing resentment.
• Protection of ethnic or cultural groups - A nation might intervene to defend people who share its heritage, viewing certain areas as ethnic homelands.

These expansions can pull regions between opposing ideologies, heightening instability.

Case study: Disputes in the South and East China Seas

The South and East China Seas are hotspots for resource-related conflicts, driven by valuable fishing grounds and oil and gas reserves. China's efforts to expand its influence have clashed with neighbouring countries, leading to environmental and legal issues.

South China Sea conflict

• China's actions - China has claimed small, previously uninhabited islands like the Spratly Islands and Scarborough Shoal, expanding its EEZ and marine territory.
• Opposing countries - The Philippines, Malaysia, Viet Nam, Indonesia, Brunei, and Taiwan dispute these claims.
• Responses and impacts:
  • China has built artificial islands, constructed ports, military bases, and oil exploration facilities.
  • This has disrupted fish breeding and damaged coral reefs through dredging.
  • These actions have violated the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which sets rules for maritime rights.
  • China has also deployed a large naval presence and restricted foreign militaries, escalating tensions.

East China Sea conflict

Japan and China dispute the Senkaku Islands, focusing on surrounding oil, gas, and fishing resources. This mirrors the South China Sea issues, with claims based on historical rights and EEZs, further straining regional relations.

Escalation to open conflict

When diplomatic tensions over resources or spheres of influence fail to resolve, they can lead to direct confrontations, including military actions. Annexation occurs when one country seizes and incorporates part of another's territory without permission, often justified by historical, political, or cultural ties.

Case study: The annexation of Crimea

The 1991 collapse of the USSR created independent states in Eastern Europe, many of which retained ties to Russia. However, some, like Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, aligned with Western organisations such as the EU and NATO, creating ideological divides. Russia has used military force to maintain influence in these areas.

Key events in the Crimea annexation

• 2014 annexation - Russia seized the Crimean Peninsula from Ukraine, with Russian troops and pro-Russian separatists occupying military bases and the local parliament.
• International backlash - Russia was expelled from the G8 (now G7) and faced sanctions, including travel bans and trade restrictions on oil and gas. These measures, starting in 2014, have cost Russia over US$450 billion in lost revenue.
• Ongoing conflict - Armed fighting began in April 2014 in Ukraine's Donbass region, causing around 3,500 civilian deaths and displacing over 1.5 million people internally.
• 2022 escalation - Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine, intensifying the conflict and drawing global condemnation.

This case illustrates how resource and influence disputes can evolve into prolonged warfare.