Powerful countries in international decision-making

International decision-making is heavily influenced by the world's most powerful nations, stemming from historical agreements established after major conflicts.

Origins of modern global governance

The foundations of today's international decision-making trace back to the Bretton Woods system, established towards the end of the Second World War. In 1944, the Bretton Woods Agreement led to the creation of key institutions designed to promote economic stability and prevent future global conflicts.

Key institutions created by the Bretton Woods Agreement:

• International Monetary Fund (IMF) - An organisation that provides financial support and advice to countries facing economic difficulties, with decision-making weighted towards more developed nations based on their economic contributions.
• World Bank - Focuses on providing loans and grants for development projects in less wealthy countries, aiming to reduce poverty and support infrastructure.

Following this, in 1945, the United Nations (UN) was formed through the United Nations Conference on International Organisation. The UN is an international body with 193 member countries that works to promote peace, security, and cooperation. Its creation was spearheaded by wartime allies including the USA, UK, and USSR (now Russia), and decision-making still tends to favour powerful nations due to structures like voting hierarchies.

Hierarchy in international organisations

Decision-making in bodies like the IMF reflects a hierarchy of development, where wealthier countries hold more influence. Powerful nations often lead responses to global crises, providing aid and resources.

Examples of crisis responses:

• During the 2014-2016 Ebola epidemic in Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Guinea, countries like the USA, UK, and France delivered financial aid, medical teams, and supplies.
• In the 2019-2020 Australian bushfires, 16 countries sent firefighting personnel, equipment, and funds to aid recovery for people and wildlife.

Sometimes, individual countries intervene unilaterally – acting alone – to protect their interests. For instance, the USA has been involved in global conflicts, earning the nickname 'the world's police', often to safeguard resources like oil supplies while building alliances.

Membership in key international organisations

Countries participate in various global groups, which enhance their influence.

The UN is connected to numerous specialised bodies, such as the World Health Organisation (WHO), the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO).

The United Nations and geopolitical stability

The UN was established to prevent large-scale conflicts like the Second World War by addressing root causes such as food shortages, water access, and human rights violations. It promotes stability through dialogue, peacekeeping, and enforcement measures.

The UN Security Council

The UN Security Council consists of 15 countries tasked with maintaining international peace. It responds to conflicts by voting on actions like deploying peacekeepers or imposing sanctions.

Structure of the Security Council:

• Permanent members - Five countries (USA, UK, Russia, France, and China) hold veto power, meaning any one can block decisions supported by the other 14 members. This structure preserves influence for major powers but is criticised for allowing dominance by a few nations.
• Temporary members - Ten other countries serve two-year terms.

Conflicts among members can undermine the council's effectiveness, as membership does not prevent military actions between them.

UN peacekeeping forces

UN peacekeepers form a neutral force drawn from Security Council member troops. Their role is to maintain order in conflict zones without initiating combat, only using arms in self-defence.

Sanctions as a tool for stability

A sanction is a penalty where countries withdraw benefits from another nation, such as ending trade deals or banning participation in international events. This is often applied to countries violating human rights, encouraging compliance without direct military involvement.

Military alliances for global influence

Countries form military alliances to pool resources, enhance security, and increase their collective power. This interdependence allows for coordinated responses to threats, strengthening geopolitical positions.

Key military alliances

• North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) - Comprises 32 members, mainly from Europe and North America, including UN Security Council permanents like the USA, UK, and France. It ensures mutual defence: an attack on one is considered an attack on all, preventing internal conflicts and deterring external aggression.
• ANZUS Treaty - Involves Australia, New Zealand, and the USA, aimed at securing the Pacific region through joint defence if any member is attacked.
• Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) - Includes China, Russia, India, Pakistan, and Tajikistan, focusing on security cooperation without formal military alliances.
• Collective Security Treaty Organisation - Led by Russia with former USSR states like Belarus and Armenia, promoting mutual military support.

Economic alliances and their benefits

Economic alliances often overlap with military ones, fostering trade and stability. Countries that are members of multiple economic and military alliances tend to have strong geostrategic positions. These alliances create free trade zones, reducing barriers and promoting interdependence, which discourages conflicts as countries become economically reliant on each other.

Major economic alliances

• European Union (EU) - A bloc of 27 countries with free trade among members, extending to the European Free Trade Association (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland). This enhances economic stability and geopolitical security.
• United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) - Formerly NAFTA, involves Canada, Mexico, and the USA, facilitating trade and economic ties in North America.
• Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) - Promotes economic growth and stability in Southeast Asia. Member countries include Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam

Other alliances include the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU), Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), and Central American Market.

Proposed and ongoing economic initiatives

The Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP) is a stalled proposal between the USA and EU to create a vast free-trade zone, potentially boosting both economies if revived.

Alliances for environmental challenges

Global environmental issues like climate change require cooperative alliances, as no single country can address them alone. Organisations facilitate scientific assessments and agreements to mitigate impacts.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

The IPCC is a scientific body that produces reports on climate change causes, effects, and mitigation strategies. These inform global policies and form the basis for international agreements.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

The UNFCCC organises Conferences of the Parties (COPs) where countries negotiate climate actions.

Key COP conferences:

1. COP3 – Kyoto 1997 - Established the Kyoto Protocol, committing members to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by an average of 5% below 1990 levels by 2012. Developing countries like China, India, and Brazil were exempt, leading the USA to abstain. Despite this, emissions fell 12.5% below targets.
2. COP18 – Doha 2012 - Extended the Kyoto Protocol to 2020, but exemptions for major emitters meant only 15% of global emissions were covered, with countries like the USA, Russia, and Canada opting out.
3. COP21 – Paris 2015 - Shifted focus to adaptation and support for affected countries via the Paris Agreement. All nations, including developing ones, committed to limiting global warming to below 2°C, with reporting on progress. Signed by 196 parties.
4. COP26 – Glasgow 2021 - Aimed for stricter targets to cap warming at 1.5°C through the Glasgow Climate Pact. It included phasing out coal, funding green energy, and supporting nations facing climate 'loss and damage'. However, the measures may fall short of the goal.