The nature of migration and its links to globalisation

Migration involves the movement of people from one place to another, often driven by a mix of choices and necessities. As the world becomes more interconnected through globalisation, migration patterns have evolved significantly.

Types of migration

• Voluntary migration - This occurs when people choose to move of their own free will, often to improve their economic situation. It is also known as economic migration because the primary motivation is usually better job prospects or higher wages.
• Forced migration - This happens when people feel they have no choice but to leave.

Globalisation has accelerated voluntary migration by strengthening connections between countries, increasing the scale and speed of movement. This migration, in turn, deepens interdependence.

How globalisation influences urban and rural areas

Cities often grow rapidly because they are hubs of economic activity, while rural areas tend to remain more isolated, with slower development. This disparity encourages migration from rural to urban settings.

Migration and the growth of megacities

Urbanisation is closely tied to migration trends. In 2018, 55% of the world's population lived in urban areas, a figure projected to rise to 68% by 2050.

Key trends in urbanisation

• The number of megacities — cities with a population of at least 10 million people — stood at 33 in 2018 and is expected to reach 43 by 2030.
• Megacity growth is linked to migration patterns, particularly an increase in rural-to-urban migration.
• Migrants are often young and likely to start families after arriving, contributing to natural population increase in cities.
• This type of migration is more common in developing and emerging economies than in developed ones, so most future megacities will emerge in developing economies. For instance, nine out of the ten cities predicted to become megacities by 2030 are in developing countries.

These trends highlight how migration drives urban expansion, concentrating populations in large cities and reshaping global demographics.

Push and pull factors influencing rural-to-urban migration

Rural-to-urban migration is motivated by a combination of push factors — negative conditions that drive people away from rural areas — and pull factors — attractive features that draw people to urban areas.

Push factors from rural areas

• Lack of suitable employment opportunities that match the skills and ambitions of young people.
• Poor working conditions in rural jobs, often involving dirty, dangerous, and difficult tasks (known as the 'three Ds').
• Mechanisation of farming, which reduces the need for manual labour and leads to unemployment.
• Land reforms or land grabbing by transnational corporations (TNCs) leaving locals with unproductive land.
• Changing climate conditions, such as floods or droughts, that degrade land and make farming challenging.
• Shortages of key resources like energy or water.
• Natural disasters or conflicts that destroy farmland.

Pull factors to urban areas

• Greater availability of jobs and higher wages due to foreign direct investment (FDI).
• Wider access to education, including schools and opportunities for further training beyond compulsory levels.
• Better healthcare facilities equipped to handle specialised needs.
• Wealthier rural residents, such as plantation owners, investing in urban properties for their children's education.

Additional influences on migration

Several modern developments make rural-to-urban migration more feasible and appealing.

• Improved communications - Information technology (IT) and social media connect rural people to urban opportunities, heightening 'bright lights syndrome' — the perception that cities offer excitement and better lifestyles.
• Transport advancements - Better roads, railways, and other infrastructure reduce intervening obstacles.
• Urban-rural connections - Beyond migration, rural areas supply cities with resources like food and raw materials, while cities provide investment and remittance payments.

These factors create a cycle where migration strengthens ties between core urban areas and peripheral rural regions.

Social and environmental challenges of urbanisation

Rapid urban growth through migration can strain cities, leading to significant issues, particularly in low-income countries where infrastructure may not keep pace.

Key challenges in growing cities

• Informal housing - Migrants often build illegal settlements on marginal land — areas unsuitable for development, such as flood-prone zones — due to a lack of affordable options.
• Public service shortages - Cities may lack enough school places, medical staff, safe drinking water, sanitation, or power for the influx of people.
• Informal economy - Without formal jobs, migrants work in unregulated sectors with low wages and poor safety, reducing tax revenue for authorities.
• Pollution and waste - Increased sewage, toxic factory waste, and plastic enter rivers; waste management becomes overwhelmed.
• Traffic and air quality - More people lead to congestion, overcrowded public transport, and higher air pollution.
• Flood risks - Building on marginal land reduces natural drainage, heightening vulnerability during heavy rains like monsoons.

These problems illustrate how unchecked urbanisation can create inequality and environmental degradation.

Case study: Rural-to-urban migration in Mumbai

Mumbai, in India's Maharashtra state, exemplifies urban growth challenges. Its population surged by over 560% from 1950 to 2020, reaching 20.4 million, driven by migrants from states like Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, and Gujarat seeking jobs.

Key features:

• Dharavi slum - This 2 km² area houses over 1 million people in informal housing.
• Informal employment - Activities like plastic recycling thrive, with 15,000 workshops generating an annual turnover of US $1 billion.

Challenges:

• Poor sanitation leads to open defecation and diseases like dysentery.
• Limited clean water access exacerbates health issues.
• Rising land prices pressure authorities to redevelop Dharavi for wealthier residents, displacing migrants.

This case shows how migration fuels growth but also intensifies poverty and inequality.

International migration and global hubs

International migration involves people moving across borders, with 281 million living outside their birth country in 2020 (3.6% of the global population). While rural-to-urban migration is faster, international flows include refugees and economic migrants, creating global hubs — highly connected cities central to worldwide activities, often hosting TNC headquarters and diverse populations.

Case study: Elite migration in London

London is a global hub attracting elite migration — the movement of highly skilled, influential people — often seen as global citizens, individuals facing few barriers to living anywhere due to their status.

Key features:

• About one-third of UK international migrants settle in London, the UK's most diverse city.
• Many are high-earners in finance or medicine, from places like India, Oceania, and North America.

Impacts:

• They contribute through taxes, property purchases, and business investments, boosting the economy and creating service jobs.
• However, property buying inflates prices, making areas like Belgravia unaffordable for locals.

Case study: Low-wage migration in Qatar

Qatar represents low-wage economic migration — the influx of low-paid workers to global hubs to fill employment quotas, especially in cities or countries with low population levels unable to fill those positions themselves.

Key features:

• Up to 700,000 Indians work in construction, infrastructure, and domestic roles, including building for the 2022 Football World Cup.
• Workers endure long hours in harsh conditions, with high death rates reported.

Impacts:

• Migrants send remittance payments home, supporting source economies.
• Concerns include illegal migration.

These examples demonstrate how different types of migration shape global hubs in different ways.

Implications of international migration for host and source countries

Migration brings a mix of benefits and costs across economic, social, political, and environmental dimensions for both host countries and source countries.

Benefits and costs for host countries

Benefits and costs for source countries

These implications show migration's dual role in creating opportunities and challenges, influencing global interdependence.